In the previous article, we spoke of the Roman Empire at the time when Christ was born, its extension through three continents and dominion over the Mediterranean. We also spoke of Caesar Augustus, the first Emperor, then Tiberius I, as well as the reign of Herod who was appointed proconsul of Judea by the Emperor. Violence, idolatry, and multitudinous philosophical ideologies prevailed that era, which influenced the various classes of the people.
In the mean time, we shall present a glimpse on the philosophies and ideologies that spread during that era. Noteworthy is that the word “philosophy” derives from the Greek “philosophia” which means “love of wisdom”.
Roman Philosophy
The Romans’ goal was to establish a great empire, which made military and political achievements their first priority. Thus, they gave attention to conquests. As for the realm of thought, they used to resort to Greek philosophy and thinkers, such as Plato and Aristotle, despite the fact that the Romans rejected Greek civilization at first. Greek language never lost its renown in arts and literature. On the other hand, Latin became the language of law and transactions. With time, the Romans realized the importance of that civilization, especially insofar as philosophy is concerned. Thus, they started taking ideas from it, which made Greek philosophy schools spread in Rome in like manner they did in Athens. An example of these schools was that of the Sophists.
Yet, the political discrepancy between Rome and Athens influenced these philosophies. So, the Romans accepted some, and rejected others, like Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Skepticism.
Stoicism
It was founded in 300 B.C. by Zeno. He was born in Cyprus, then lived in Athens for quite a while. Stoicism derives from “Stoa” which was a colonnade overlooking the central gathering place of Athens. Zeno was followed by Cleanthes, then Chrysippus who set the core of the philosophy, which is why some researchers counted him the second father of Stoicism.
Stoics believed that humans are members of the great city of gods and men. They promoted a living in harmony with the universe that one might achieve happiness. One of them said, “Whatever is in harmony with the universe is good for me; whatever is timely for the world suits me best. Whatever your seasons, O Nature, give me is actually mine. Everything comes from you, returns to you and is originally within you.” Stoicism showed deep interest in reason, being characteristic of humans, and that man’s job is to “discover his innate logic and express it through his deeds, that is, to live up to Nature and logic.”
The Stoics’ concept of happiness is linked to reason, which is why it depends on suppressing destructive emotions and succumbing unethical desires to reason, not fulfilling them as is the case with other philosophies. The greatest Stoic virtues reside in bravery, vigilance, self-control, and justice. The influence of Stoicism endured for four centuries. It greatest doctors were Epictetus, Seneca, and the Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius.
Epicureanism
Epicureanism is ascribed to Epicurus. He was born in Samos, and, at the age of eighteen, he became a disciple of Pamphilius. He went to Athens to complete the military service. He finished his education in Mytilene, then in Lampsacus prior returning to Athens to found his philosophical school which he called “the garden”, as he used to gather his students in his garden.
Epicureanism is based on that the tenets of a happy life were embodied in getting rid of fear, and the absence of pain. Epicurus believed that pleasure and pain were the standards of good and evil, that one should not fear death which is the end of both body and soul. Also, he believed that the gods neither rewarded nor punished humans. Likewise, he believed that the universe was eternal and endless. Epicurus did not deny the presence of the gods. Yet, he rejected their role in creating the world, for he thought this came to pass by coincidence due to the motion and interaction of atoms. He also rejected afterlife and immortality. He believed that pleasure was the utmost good and the goal of a happy life. There are eight Epicurean tenets:
– Do not fear God;
– Do not fear death;
– Do not fear pain;
– Live simply;
– Seek pleasure wisely;
– Seek friends, make friendships, and treat your friends well;
– Be honest in your life and work;
– Avoid fame and political ambition.
Epicureanism dominated the Mediterranean. Thus, Antioch had an Epicurean school in the second century B.C. So did Alexandria which was influenced by its ideologies, whereas Epicureanism flourished in Rome from the first century B.C. to the second century A.D.
Skepticism (Pyrrhonism)
Aenesidemus founded this philosophy in the first century B.C. He called it after Pyrrho, its godfather and the first skeptic philosopher. Pyrrho was born in Elis, southern Greece. He was a painter who adopted philosophy after reading Democritus. Some historians maintain that Pyrrho and Anaxarchus accompanied Alexander the Great in his crusades on the East, which gave them a chance to learn from the Gymnosophists of India and the Magi of Persia.
Some believe that Skepticism is a point where Sophist ideology (which denies reason altogether) and its opposing Aristotelian logic (which emphasized reason) meet. Pyrrho presented ten reasons why absolute skepticism is necessary. He believed that each truth had the likelihood of two judgments; it can be either negative or positive equally. Thus, man should refrain from formulating any opinion regarding truth, for he cannot trust reason or senses. In effect, man should never give any clear-cut judgment, treating all cases with probability and procrastination. Pyrrho’s disciples followed suit. Pyrrhonism lasted till the beginning of the third century A.D.
Thus, Christ was born in an age full of conflicting ideologies which promoted the superiority of reason over any other human talent. Likewise, thinkers promoted pleasure, denying God and afterlife. Moreover, they furthered doubting all truths. Adding on, corruption spread through the rituals of idolatry. So much so that humans were slaughtered in many countries to please the gods. This was accompanied by all sorts of immorality. What stories! Stories never end in Beautiful Egypt.
