In the previous article, we spoke of St. Samuel the Confessor who is an epitome of what the Copts had gone through when they clung to their creed despite the Byzantine violence. Egyptians, however, did not just go through bad economic conditions as well as persecution. They also suffered from administrative division.
The Division of Egypt
During the tenure of Leo I (457-474) in the fifth century A.D., historians maintain that rural areas were no longer divided into provinces. Thus, each became one nome financially managed by one powerful employee, the pagarch, who was the emperor’s direct report.
In 554 A.D., Caesar Justinian I (527-565) issued his thirteenth directive that divided Egypt for the first time. Egypt was divided into four nomes controlled by the ruler of the East. The ruler was given full civil and military authorities, hence, preventing any of the four nomes from controlling the other three.
Egypt’s four nomes were:
Aigyptus stretched through Western Delta, including, Alexandria. It was ruled by a “Duke”. Duke means “the noble man” who is lesser in rank than the king or queen. It derives from the Latin “Dux” which means “military commander”. The Duke also bore the title “Augustus” which meant the emperor’s representative.
Augustaminca: it included Eastern Delta stretching through Pelusium and Arish. It was ruled by a Duke.
Arcadia: This is Middle Egypt that included Bahnasa. It was ruled by a Count. This title derives from “Comes” which means the “emperor’s page”, a title lent to the nobility, wealthy, and renowned. It was used at the decline of the Roman Empire.
Thebes: It stretched from Ashmunin to the farthest south. It was ruled by a Duke bearing the title “Augustus”.
Each nome, save Arcadia, was divided into two provinces ruled by a nomarch with civil authority only.
This is how Egypt was administratively divided during the Roman era.
The Arab Peninsula
The Arab Peninsula is ascribed to the “Arabs”. According to “Al-Muhit “and the “New Common Philological Errors” dictionary, the etymology of “Arabs” is related to “land” or “place near the city”. Quraysh lived at a place near a city. Thus, they were called Arabs.
“Al-Muhit” also tells us that Arabs obtained that name from the dark color of their complexion, or due to inhabiting the western part of the country, or because the land they lived in was called “Arabia”. Moreover, it is said that “Arabs” bore that name as they lived in “Arabia” (aka. Mecca).
In “Al-Waseet”, we find that Arabs is a nation of Semite origin. It sprung from the Arab peninsula.
Another opinion shows that the word has a Semite origin. In Hebrew, it means “nomads”. Also, Arab is ascribed to “Ya’rob bin Qahtan”, the first person to speak in Arabic. He was Yemeni.
It could also derive from the verb denoting eloquence “Ya’rob”: to speak eloquently. Then, it was lent to the “Arabs” to indicate their articulacy.
The word “Arab” was used by ancient Jews as a synonym for “Ishmaelite”. Additionally, the word was mentioned in the Book of Acts where we read about, “Cretes and Arabians, we do hear them speak in our tongues the wonderful works of God.”
St. Paul also writes in his epistle to the Galatians, “…but I went into Arabia, and returned again unto Damascus.”
In the Greek era, the Arab peninsula was known as Arabia or Aravia.
The Romans inhabited three regions in the Arab peninsula, namely:
Arabia Petraea: the northern part. Its capital was Petra.
Arabia Deserta: signified the desert interior of the Arab peninsula.
Arabia Felix: “Fortunate Arabia”. This name describes the current Yemen.
Due to the variety of lifestyles in the northern and southern parts of the Arab peninsula, the difference between nomads and urban population, trade flourished throughout the peninsula, between the peninsula , the Levant , Egypt, and the Mediterranean territories.
Trade was the most important activity that linked Egypt and the Arab peninsula. Kings and Pharaohs gave it a lot of attention through establishing fleets to boost sea trade. Likewise, they constructed roads in Sinai, which strengthened the commercial relationships between the western peninsula and its north west and the Nile Valley. The Arab peninsula used to export textiles to Egypt for about 2000 years B.C. Archaeologists maintain that inhabitants of the northern coast of the peninsula would reach ancient Egypt via sea and land. This was discovered in an Egyptian engraving that dates back to 1360 B.C. Inhabitants of the north western peninsula were mediators in incense trade between southerners and Egyptians.
Sea Trade
Arabs controlled the sea trade between Egypt and India. Greeks tried to control it, but failed. The Arab peninsula had several harbors, such as, al-Ubulla, Gerrha, Oman, Sohar, Mocha, Kana, Eden, Shaibah, and Ayla.
Land Trade
Land trade was held by camel caravans which were used for transportation 1000 years B.C. Quraysh held two important trade trips: the summer trip to Levant, and the winter trip to Yemen.
The most important trade roads in the Arab peninsula, as per Dr. Shawqy Sha’ath, were:
Ma’rib-Petra: This road stretched from south to north, starting with Ma’rib and passing through several cities until it reaches Petra. It started from Eden, passed through Kana and Hadhramaut, reaching Ma’rib (which is 80 miles away from Sana’a), then it continued to Najran, Ta’if, Mecca, Yathripa, Khaybar, Al-‘Ula and Mada’in Saleh. Then another road would project from it heading to Tayma, Duhat al-Mandal, then it followed the main road until it reached Petra, then Gaza. One of its branches headed to the Levant and another to Egypt.
Ma’rib-Gerrha: It started from Ma’rib, then Najran, passing through Al-Faw (50 kilometers far, southern Wadi ad-Dawasir and Jebel Tuwaiq. From thence, it headed to Layla, Al-Yamama, then Al-Hofouf, Gerrha on the coast of the Arab Gulf.
Gerrha-Petra: It started from Gerrha, then al-Hofouf. Then it stretched northwards from Al-Yamama, deviating to the northwest parallel to Jebel Tuwaiq, heading to Buraydah, Hai’l, then Tayma and finally Petra.
There are other secondary roads, one of which started from the Arab Gulf heading to the northwest. It was adjacent to eastern Najd. It continued to Iraq or the Levant. Another road stretched to Hadhramaut, then Amman, heading to Al-Yamama, after which it ascended to the Levant or Iraq where it crossed the eastern or western road, or one of their branches.
Trade between the Arab peninsula, and Mesopotamia, and the Levant dates back to three thousand years B.C. There are many discoveries that show commercial activities between Dilmun and the northern Levant in the early Bronze Age. Other discoveries testify to the boom of trade centers, such as, Meluhha, Magan, Dilmun, Mary, Iarmuti, and Ibla.
The main trade was that of incense which was used in religious rituals and perfumes. The Arab peninsula was an important center for distributing precious goods imported from India and Africa, like spices and ivory. Herodotus, the Greek historian, writes about the southern Arab peninsula, “It was the only place that produced incense, myrrh, Cassia, cinnamon, and frankincense.”
Likewise, historians speak of the Nabataean Kingdom, northern the Arab peninsula. It existed between the first and second centuries A.D. It played a significant role in land trade between the north and south of the Arab peninsula. Caravans used to pass from Hejaz, then Rabigh, Petra, then westward to Gaza and Arish, and northward to Damascus, then the Mediterranean.
After the Roman occupation, at the beginning of the second century A.D., Petra became a Roman nome. Trade declined. Trade roads were turned to the Red Sea that passed by Egypt, as well as the Arab Gulf which passed by Tadmur, then to the Roman Empire.
Greek merchants revived trade between the Gulf of Eden and the Mediterranean harbors, such as Tyre and Antioch. They established colonies in Ethiopia adjacent to the Red Sea.
Gaza became a famous trade center at that time due to its unique position by the coast of the Mediterranean. Gaza lies at the end of the coast, right before the desert road. Likewise, it was the first town to receive caravans coming from Egypt. At the same time, it marked the destination of the caravans coming from Petra via Beersheba. Gaza was reconstructed during the Roman era, after 57 B.C. to be one of the wealthiest harbors in the Roman Empire.
At the beginning of the fourth century A.D., caravan trade in the southern Arab peninsula declined due to the deterioration of the incense market. Historians ascribe this deterioration to the following reasons:
– Lack of security in trade roads: as the Roman Empire got weak after the Persian conquest.
– Internal wars in the Arab peninsula.
Land trade and caravans continued irregularly, though. The story continues… Stories never end in Beautiful Egypt.
